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July 14, 2009

Etruscan / Roman Art Notes

ETRUSCAN ART

Slide 1

Etruscans from
Italy – general area of Tuscany – called Etruria.
They descended from Villanovans (people from central Europe) and before that from early Bronze Age peoples that had occupied Italy since 3000 BC
Villanovan people brought Iron Age culture to Italian Peninsula around f1000 BC

Etruscans emerge around 8th century BC. This was about the same time that the Greeks first began to settle along the Southern shores of Italy and Sicily.

Greek Classical historian Herodotos claimed (this claim now disputed) that the Etruscans (“Tyrrhenoi” to Greeks) had left their homeland in Lydia in Asia Minor about 1200 BC. They settled in area between Florence and Rome- that area was called (Rasenna” by the Etruscans and called “Etruria” by the Romans, and now it is called Tuscany (“Tuscany”-the country of the “Tusci” or “Etrusci”)

Etruscans did have strong links to Asia Minor and the ancient Near East, both culturally and artistically.

Flowering of Etruscans also due to influx of Greek culture
End of 8th century – Etruscans borrowed Greek alphabet.

Still, the Etruscan language is unique – no relationship to any known tongue.
Only Etruscan writings are brief – some funerary inscriptions and some texts relating to religious ritual.

Claudius (Roman author) tells of rich Etruscan literature – but it has vanished

Our primary knowledge of them from their tombs – very elaborate tombs – unmolested by the Romans – very elaborate tombs

Romans occupied later and rebuilt their cities – Romans did not disturb tombs of Etruscans.

TOMBS: In Italian Bronze Age – modest burials. Remains of dead put in pottery vessel or cinerary urn – then vessel put in pit with items such as weapons for men and jewelry or domestic items for women. 

In Myceneaen Greece – the cult of the dead


Slide 2

Became more elaborate – due to Egyptian influence 

Myceneans built large beehive tombs.

Similarly in Tuscany during Orientalizing influence (influence of East around 750 – 575 BC) around 700 BC the Etruscans began to imitate interiors of dwellings in stone for their tombs. These stone tombs covered with large, conical mounds of earth – called TUMULUS TOMBS.

Tombs were roofed by vaults or corbelled domes built of horizontal overlapping courses of stone blacks (such as Treasury of Atreus)

Colossal sized mounds with diameters over 130 ft.

Funerary sculpture:
At this time (around 700 BC) pottery urns took on human shape – cinerary urns – held ashes of the deceased after the rite of cremation.
Lid took shape of head of deceased – urns became substitute for the body of the deceased.
Body markings on vessel itself – anthropomorphic
Arms and hands for handles of urn, even features like nipples
Syrian influence – North Syrian sculpture
Etruscan sailors frequented part of Al Mina in Syria
If vessel placed on throne that indicated high rank

Found in Tombs:
Wealth exhibited in goldsmiths’ work. These gold objects possibly made by the Phoenicians which traded with Etruscans and had peace agreements with Etruscans.
Also precious objects imported from the Near East.

Etruscans peaked around 7th – 6th century BC
At that time their fleet dominated the western Mediterranean and protected large commercial empire that competed with Greeks and Phoenicians – territory spread from Naples in South to Po Valley in north.

Never formed unified nation (same as Greeks) just loose federation of individual city-states-guarnelled (spelling?)

Slow to unite against enemies.

474 BC – navy of archrival Syracuse defeated them

Late 5th & 4th century – Etruscan cities fell to Romans. Etruscan kings ruled Rome for a century until Roman Republic established in 510 BC.

By 270 BC all Etruscan cities had fallen
Lost independence although by evidence of tombs th3ey still had prospered. Did lose political power. 


Slide 3

Tombs and Decoration

Cult of dead flourished even as Etruscans were influenced by Archaic Greek art.

Etruscans kept their won style and rituals too.

Sarophagi – very elaborate
Shaped like couches with deceased shown full length reclining on lid.

As if at feast – but unlike Greek symposium where only men were allowed (except for courtesans.) Eturscan feasts expanded to include the whole family – Greeks surprised at relative freedom and stature of women in Etruria.

Here husband and wife recline in affectionate embrace

Joyous archaic smile

Terra cotta (clay) was painted in bright colors, cast in four directions and then joined.

Wife appears to have been applying funeral oil to husband’s left hand (she had held alabastron _now missing – in her right hand) – this was typical Etruscan rite. 

Soft modeling rather than chiseled carving of Archaic Greeks at this time – less formal
Does share the Greek Archaic features such as almond-shaped eyes, archaic smile, Egyptian hair stylization

Much more warm and affectionate than archaic Greek sculptures

Displays warm bond between couple

Deceased shown as alive, joyous and animated

Tomb to house body and soul


Slide 4 

Tomb of Hunting and Fishing

Wall painting – at this time, kind of fresco

Painting on a thin slip applied to living rock wall or on a stucco paste made from ground rock. Colors used were red, black, blues, green to ochre- these colors harmonized with the creamy warm yellow ground of the wall.

Tombs decorated with colorfully animated scenes of nature.

Also reflected life and joy – dancing dolphins (like Exelxias black – figure ???
“Kionysus on a Boat”)

Dolphins and birds – free, rhythmic movement

Possible influence of Egyptians and reminiscent of Minoans 1000 yrs earlier

Successful placement of human figures in natural setting

Despite enchanted feeling, some ominous quality – giant hunter with slingshot shoots at birds and they scatter

Possibly represents “demon of death” character that appears in other Etruscan murals. 


Slide 5 

LATER FUNERARY BELIEFS

During 5th century BC – Etruscan view of hereafter became more complex and less optimistic – maybe Greek influence as seeing death as an uncertain divide between life and death – not a continuation of life on a new plane.

Youth and Demon of Death: cinerary container carved from soft local stone soon after 400 BC. Here woman sits on opposite side of man at foot of couch. She is his wife but she is a demon of death – you can see her wings. The scroll in her left hand records the fate of the deceased. The young man points to her. She (as death) is his fate.

More thoughtful and melancholy than previous funerary art by Etruscans.

Influence of more somber classical Greek art.

Reflect uncertainly and regret in face of death – man is tiny and helpless in face of supernatural forces beyond his control. 

Cinerary Urn from Volterra – 2nd century BC – 33” high – carved from alabaster

After 2nd half of 4th century – in workshops of Volterra, a new cinerary urn developed.

Receptacle in high relief (below figure) this shows way to hereafter on Chariot drawn by mules – accompanied by horsemen and servants – this is a funeral procession – chariot held Sarcophagus inside.

Top – woman in reclining attitude of banqueter. Wearing her jewelry – she holds fan and pomegranate – symbolic imagery – pomegranate symbolic of immortality. 


Slide 6 

Tombs in this area cut out of live rock – Tufa – a strongly compressed volcanic ash that is easily excavated and hardens to a concrete consistency when exposed to air. 

Even (as in home) beds, chairs and footstools cut out of tufa rock.

As in Etruscan tradition – tombs here were modeled after Etruscan tombs. This is a family burial site – several generations

Here walls decorated with stucco relief instead of wall paintings – all over walls there are reliefs of weapons, armor, household items and domestic animals meant to underscore connection between the living and dead.

Also busts of the deceased 

New them introduced:
Fearful demons battle the benevolent spirits for soul of deceased – precursor to the Last Judgment scene in Medieval Art.

Demons appear in relief in this tomb. 

On back wall – snake-legged demon and three-headed hound Cerberus – guardian of the infernal regions – disquieting monster demons develop

Maybe these had robe like Medusa (gorgon) on temple of Artemis at Corfu (Greece 600-580 BC central portion of west pediment.)


Slide 7

Etruscan Temples – built of wood – only foundations remain – probably for religious reasons

Similar to simple Greek temples

North/south axis instead of East/West axis of Greek temples

Distinctive features (later used by Romans)
Structure rests on tall base or podium that is no wider than the cella
Sides of temple are plain – more focus on front porch (steps on south side) entrance
Also more emphasis on interior rather than elaborate exterior view of Greek temples.
Large porch in front supported by 2 rows of columns – 4 per row
Columns were wood, resembled Doric columns but they were fluted and had bases.
Cella is divided into 3 sections representative of a triad of gods (for later Romans these gods were Juno, Jupiter and Minerva (Zeus, Herra, and Athena)
Decoration usually limited to terra cotta plaques covering architrave and edge of roof
Statuettes on roof
After 400 BC there are occasionally large-scale terra cotta sculptures in pediment above porch. 


Slide 8 

Example of terra cotta plaque – mould made

Male and female faces – after 400 BC terra cotta groups on pediment but less often than in Greece.

Here at edge of roofing – concealed extremities of convex tiles

Roof – gabled – terra cotta tiles

Wide overhang to protect temple

Wooden structures gone – terra cotta tiles and ornaments tell us much about the temples, along with the stone foundation

Tiled roof protected the perishable wooden or mud brick building blacks below

Half-round “cover” times protected the first layer of flat “pan” tiles

The end of a row of half-round cover tiles was capped with a terra cotta centivix

An array of other terra cotta fitting protected important beams and joints. Plaques covered longitudinal beams, gutters or simas drew off rainwater.


Slide 9 

Apollo, from Veii – an early attempt to place monumental sculpture on exterior of temple

Bold attempt at large figurative sculpture

Veii – north of Rome

This temple had 4 life-size terra cotta figures on ridge of roof.

They represented a scene what was a contest between Hercules and Apollo for sacred female deer – other deities were there to witness the struggle.

The figure of Apollo:
Excellent example of Etruscan Archaic sculpture

Massive body under folds of garment

Stature like large giant – awkward but dynamic and more animated than Greek Archaic counterpart.

Muscular leg thrusts forward in bold stride – expressive power.

Terra cotta – additive process molding, allowed greater flexibility than carving.


Slide 10 

Bronze she-wolf (caste) – made by Etruscan master sculptor

Twins below made in Renaissance and added

Myth of Romulus and Remus – this myth spread by Virgil and Livy and others during time of Augustus (30 BC) to legitimize his reign

According to myth – Rome founded in 753 BC by 2 brothers – Romulus and Remus – they were descendents of refugees from Troy

They were nourished by she-wolf after they were abandoned

History of this statue debated but probably it was an Etruscan Archaic original

Ferocious expression of wolf

She-wolf symbol has links to Etruscan mythology.


Slide 11 

Example of mastery the Etruscans had with metalwork

Chimera from Arezzo – bronze monster

Rough maned-lions head – serpent head on tail – goats head as second head on back – fire breathing

Story of Chimera – one of first “hero slays fire-breathing monster” myths

Chimera slain by the hero
Bellerophon (prince of Corinth)
Bellerophon slew the Chimera with aid of Athena – she helped him harness the power of Pegasus (winged horse in Greek myth). Armed with spear of lead – lanced Chimera in mouth – lead turned molten and monster suffocated to death. 

Demonic significance of Chimera and other monsters

Etruscans had developed a demonology

Much of this type of art associated with mortuary rituals

Developed demons that plagued the dead in the underworld

Greeks tried to humanize demons

Etruscans (under Asian roots and influences) represented demons as dreadful animal hybrids

Precedents for this
Egyptian sphinx and animal headed gods
Ammut – the devourer of those who commit evil deeds and can’t enter afterlife – part crocodile (head), lion (body and legs), and hindquarters of a hippopotamus – all ferocious beasts
Assyrian lamassu – winged bull or lion with human head 
Minotaur – head of bull and body of man


Slide 12 

Etruscan – from interest in individual images of deceased – led to early interest in portraiture – this tradition continued on in roman times (portrait busts)

Around 300 BC – influence of Greek portraiture – led to individual likenesses in Etruscan sculpture, especially in heads of bronze statures

Portrait of a Boy:
Masterpiece – high-quality of casting and finishing – Etruscans famous as metal-workers 
Long standing fame – wealth of Etruria founded on exploitation of copper and iron deposits

From 6th century BC on they produced large numbers of statuettes, mirrors, etc. for domestic use and export

Mirrors – engraved the backs with scenes of Greek myths – the loves of Gods popular theme

Amorous themes on mirrors that are objects of self-admiration (Narcissus, beautiful youth that fell in love with his own reflection in a pool)


Slide 13 

Mirrors – this one done soon after 400 BC

This them not just a Greek myth!

Undulating wreath of vines circles a winged old man that is the seer Khalchas (reference to Greek seer Halcha in Homer’s Iliad)

He examines a roundish object – a liver of a sacrificed animal

Etruscans practiced Divination – search for omens – will of gods expressed through signs in the natural world, things like thunderstorms or the flight of birds


Priests would observe flights of birds from the front porch of the temple

By reading the signs – could discover approval or disapproval of their acts

Priests that knew this secret language enjoyed great prestige – even Romans consulted them before important events.

Divination (as Romans said was the art of interpreting signs) – traced back tot ancient Mesopotamia

Greeks practiced it too, but not to same extent as Etruscans did

Livers of sacrificed animals – thought gods inscribed messages on them – liver as a microcosm and divided up into sections that related to the 16 regions of the sky

Mirrors also valued for ability to reveal future

Flights of birds – foretold future events

Word “auspicious” – ???by a good or a favorable “allspice”

“auspice” – 1) observation by diviner of omens of flight or feeding of birds or 
2) prophetic or favorable sign


ROMAN ART

Slide 14 

Roman Civilization – familiar to us – left vast amounts of literature, history, poetry, philosophy

Built many monuments through Roman Empire. Empire spread from England to the Persian Gulf; from Spain to Romania

Romans wiped out Etruscan culture from 2nd – 3rd centuries BC

After death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Rome began its rise to power in the Mediterranean

Roman history – 2 parts
1. Republican Times 509 – 27 BC
2. Empire 27 BC – 395 AC
Emperor Augustus (reigned 27 BC – 14 AC_ established a tradition of arts patronage and promoted a revival of Athenian style throughout his empire

In Roman times Greek classical art was thought the greatest art – Augustus embraced Greek art to prove Roman cultural superiority

Romans imported Greek art originals. Also made copies of Greek art.

Many artists of Greek origin – most art unsigned, but Greek artists clearly Romanized

Romans wrote more about Greek art than Roman art (with the exception of Vitruvius – wrote treatise on architecture)

Greek artists mentioned by Romans: Polykleitus, Pheidias, Praxiteles, Lysippos

What was “Roman” art besides “Greek art under Roman rule”?

Roman art – still had own character

Most important contributions were architecture and portraiture

Also absorbed other influences: Etruscan (mostly) and Egyptian Near Eastern influences

Roman Art – not clear style – complex mixture: Roman Society in its conquest of other cultures – did impose law and order, but was a bit of a “melting pot” that assimilated other cultures’ local gods and sages – people in distant regions could get Roman citizenship. 


Slide 15 

True Arch – made of Voussoirs (voo swars) – wedge shaped blocks that point toward the center of a semi-circular opening – strong and self-sustaining

Arch – curved structure used to span an opening center keystone or crown

True arch was developed in Egypt in 2700 BC – not used in temples. Mesopotamia and Greece also used true arch but only in very functional structures – not in temples

Impost – a block, capital or moulding from with an arch spring 

Keystone – uppermost or crown

Crown – extrados, intrados

Groin vault – two barrel vaults that intersect at right angles bay

Barrel vault – Half cylinder structure made of successive arches

Roman architecture – dwarfs other ancient civilizations’ achievements 

Roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters, forums, palaces, monuments, walls
From Scotland to Iraq
Across more than 30 modern nations

Emphasis on meeting needs of large public (water to entertainment) and military and political requirements

More functional than other great ancient civilizations – more emphasis on use of interior for large crowds – less emphasis on exterior of structures.

Freely borrowed from Etruscan and Greek architecture – unencumbered by lofty artistic ideals – more motivated by political, military, economic and social concerns. 

Built on large scale – more functional new forms needed – cheaper and faster

1) Concrete invented earlier by several other ancient civilizations – traditional mixture was sand, lime, and water. Invented in Near East more than 10-00 yrs earlier

Roman substituted a dark red volcanic ash called pozzolana for sand in concrete recipe – made extremely strong building material that was excellent for bridges and port structures because it hardened with contact with water.

When the mixture was mixed with gravel, it took on characteristics of rock
This Roman concrete made it possible to build massive vaults and walls- could cover vast spaces

This use of material eliminated need to quarry, transport and cut rock (except for marble facing over concrete) – could make concrete on building site with unskilled laborers. 

Facing over concrete – brick, stone, marble or plaster – today the decorative skin that once covered Roman structures are gone. 

2) Structural innovations:
Arch and vault systems
(vault – an arched roof or ceiling usually made of stone, brick, or concrete. Several types of vaults have been developed; all need buttressing – a projecting support – at the point where the lateral thrust is concentrated. Lateral – of or relating to the side: directed to or from the side.)

Barrel vault – half cylindrical structure made of successive arches

Groin vault – 2 barrel vaults that intersect at right angles

Dome – true dome is vaulted roof or circular, polygonal or elliptical plan, formed with hemispherical or voidal curvature. May be supported by a drum and by pendentives or related construction. There are various type of domes. 

True arch – made of voussoirs – wedge shaped blacks that point toward the center of a semi-circular opening

An arch – (true arch) gains strength as the load above it increases – Romans exploited this property to build monumental structures

Arches also accommodated mighty spans – as in Roman bridges and aqueducts. 


Slide 16 

Engaged columns – not true peristyle

Ionic Columns

Roman temples – Greek and Etruscan influence

Strongest in Republican times (510 – 60 BC) – heroic time of Roman Expansion

Greek influence – elegant proportions, ionic columns and entablature.

Roman conquest of Greece – 146 BC – absorbed Greek style

Etruscan influence – high podium, deep porch or pronaos, wide cella or naos, naos or cella now one room (Etruscan cellas were divided into 3 parts)

Spacious temples – for image of god and display of trophies (statues and weapons) brought back by armies.
Sides have engaged columns – not true peristyle.

Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Rome, late 2nd century BC is oldest well-preserved example of this type of temple – many more like this, many large with Corinthian columns


Slide 17 

Another type of Republican temple

Round temples of late Republican times

Round shape – mixture of round traditional peasant huts and Greek Tholos (round building)

Based on building in center of Rome that housed the sacred flame of the city

High podium – steps at entrance only

Greek inspired exterior

Cella – concrete with marble facing with window and door frames of cut stone

Corinthian columns


Slide 18 

Basilica – large public building used for courts of law and public functions-like a municipal hall

Forums

Julius Caesar sponsored grand scale project in Rome – Forum Julium

Forum – Latin word meaning open space in any Roman town where business, judicial, civic, or religious activities were conducted. Typically it was a square or rectangle with open space bounded by 3 colonnades on 3 sides and on the fourth side by a basilica

Julius Caesar built the Forum Julium around 54 BC (he died Mar. 15 44 BC – murdered in Senate – (his murderers were overthrown by his young grandnephew, adopted son, and chief heir, later known as Augustus Octavian)

Forum Julium – was a great architecturally framed square adjoining the Temple of Venus Genetrix (the mythical ancestors of Ceasar’s family) – merged religion and personal glory. Model for later Imperial Roman forums – linked together by the Sacred Way – road

Forums – only field or ruins now


Slide 19 

Aqueduct – (means “lead water”) tope section has water channel – usually they were underground except bridges to carry water over rivers and ravines.

Lateral thrust of each vault counteracted by its neighbors end vaults. Only needs buttressing. 

Pont du Gard, Nimes, France, early 1st century BC

Basis of construction is arch and vault.

Designed for efficiency – show durability of Roman engineering

Mighty arched spans cared aqueducts across valleys and waterways

This most spectacular – built without mortar in 19 BC near Nimes, France

Carried water in its upper channel for nearly 300 yards across the Gard River at a height of 160 feet

Used gravity to transport water over aqueducts from springs and rivers

Surveyors calculated precise slope at which aqueduct should by built – steep enough to keep water moving, but not so steep that it slowed too fast and eroded the masonry channel. Because the slope had to be kept constant, at different points an aqueduct might run at ground level, underground, or high over ravines or rivers. 

Not many survive – this one best example

Eleven main aqueducts eventually served Rome. First one – Aqua Appia – built 312 BC

The Aqua Claudia (AD47) – best constructed one- brought water to Rome from 45 miles away from Sybiacco – had 10 miles of arched supports along its course. Art city limits, water was drained into a holding tank and distributed to several water mains.

An ancient Roman aqueduct still brings water from springs in Salone fourteen miles to the Trevi Fountain in Rome. 


Slide 20 

Emperor Vespian (ruled Rome from 69 AD – 79 AC) began it and his son, Roman Emperor Titus dedicated it in AD 80. It was completed by Vespian’s younger son, Domitian, who succeeded Titus as Emperor in 81 AD. Originally called the Flavian Amphitheater (Gr. Amphi=around + theatron=theater)

Colosseum – huge amphitheater for gladiatorial games – center of Rome

Completed in 80 AD

Huge – 50,000 spectators

159 feet tall, 616 feet long, and 511 feet wide

Concrete core, miles of stairways and barrel and groin vaulted corridors to take traffic to arena. 

On top they spanned expanse with huge canvas sheets that sailors of imperial fleet operated to shade crowed on hot days. 

Concrete with stone facing – engaged (attached) columns and entablatures, endless repetition of arches or arcades. 

More than 3 million cubic feet of travertine marble

3 orders – by weight (3 levels of arcades):
1) Doric – bottom floor – “heaviest” order on bottom
2) 2) Ionic – next level up
3) Corinthian – next up – gets lighter in weight as go up

Arch – keeps consistency in structure

Top level (attic story) – Corinthian plasters (engaged) with small windows, metal shields mounted to spaces between windows

The surface of outer wall got flatter as it went up, leads viewer’s eye up – topped with projecting cornice at top to crown the structure.

Upper wall fitted with sockets into which poles were inserted as supports for large canvas coverings that were stretched by sailors to cover when needed.

NEXT SLIDE

Place of violent spectacles for entertainment

Colosseum designed for gladiator contests and combat between men and animals and animals vs. animals

Once this property was pond (on Nero’s property) so it was possible to build a built-in drainage system for washing away blood and gore of combat.

There were subterranean passages for animals

Arena – elliptical area inside – was a pit with high wall around it to protect spectators – floor – wooden base supported by substructures – covered with sand


Slide 21 

Colosseum built around a concrete core, with extensive system of halls and stairways for easy access

Two types of vault used in corridor ceilings – barrel vault and groin (across) vault


Slide 22 

Porch – deep called “portico” or “pronaos” , Corinthian Columns, once high podium – now street covers it

Pantheon

Large round temple

Cella – large drum with curved dome on top

Entrance – deep porch

Originally on higher podium – now street level has risen

Can’t see original steps

Severe, weighty, plain exterior – must have had support problems – thick outer wall

Interior – opens up – light awe-inspiring space

Dome – true hemisphere (fig 7-14)

Dome interior

Interlocking ribs from structural cage with lightweight coffers – 5 rings

Circular opening – oculus or “eye” admits light

Oculus to floor – 143 ft – equals diameter of domes base and interior (fig 7-14)

Dome and drum – equal weight balance

Outside of Dome
Weightier – as dome goes down wall thickens (from 6-20 ft at bottom) for support

Interior – dome rests on 8 pillars
Niches in between pillars with columns inside – effect of opening space – lighten wall

Pantheon – dedicated to all gods – 7 planetary gods – 7 riches


Slide 23 

Oculus – 27 foot diameter

Rebuilt by Hadrian AD 118 and 128

Grand monument to Roman deities

In 608 AD, given to pope at that time – to turn into church – Santa Maria ad Martyres – thus insuring its survival, in good condition


Slide 24 

Relatively plain and severe exterior – no hint of grandeur inside

Entrance emphasized by deep porch – Corinthian columns

Inscription refers to Marcus Agrippa (who built the first temple on the site toward the end of 1st century BC 

Originally porch was part of a rectangular colonnaded forecourt that detached it somewhat from the rotunda.


Slide 25 

Corinthian Columns

Detail of back


Slide 26 

Central inner space called “rotunda” – round structure

Spaces carved into wall “niches” 7 spaces or niches for 7 Roman deities

Interior
Marble veneer, stucco – painted decoration, many surfaces guilded


Slide 27 

No narrative


Slide 28 

Oculus – 27 foot diameter – only window, 140 coffers, 5 rows of 28

Oculus – never was covered – still open to this day. The marble floor is slightly concave with petal shaped drains at intervals to drain rain water. Slight rain is stopped by upward-flowing air drafts – only heavy rainfall comes in and is drained. 

Dome – 6 foot thick at top – expands to 20 feet thick at base for support of downward thrust

Interlocking ribs in dome – forms structural cage – allows coffers – they were originally guilded coffers: they diminish in size as the go up

Heightens sense of depth and perspective

Dome – symbol of sky or “eye of heaven”

Sun – eye of Jupiter – supreme deity of Rome


Slide 29 

Plan and Reconstruction – apse – colossal statue of Constantine
Seat for Constantine could sit as emperor
2 entrances
narthex or vestibule

Basilica of Constantine – north aisle left standing

Thermae – great baths – social life centers in Imperial Rome public baths – steam rooms

Experimental with new building types for great baths

Led to new building types like this

Basilica of Constantine – inspired by great baths – Basilica – long hall for public uses (held court there) – means “royal house” – Greek Hellenistic times

Large scale – central Nave or central hall flanked by ??? isle – only Naish and 3 large ??? vault compartments remain

Nave was once covered with 3 groin vaults – rose higher than aisles – resemble canopy

Groin vaults – weight goes to 4 corners so upper walls could be opened up the windows – called the ???? – gave light airy quality to interior

Usually wooden roofs – many destroyed by fire

Entered through vestibule or nathex on East end

Apse – semicircular niche on opposite west – where the colossal statue of Constantine was 

2nd entrance on south added and 2nd niche opposite added where he could sit as emperor

This design would later (7000 yrs later) influence the later vaulted Basilican churches in western Europe.


Slide 30 

View of east side

Coffers

3 large barrel vaults that span north aisle, still standing


Slide 31 

No narrative


Slide 32 

No narrative


Slide 33 

No narrative


Slide 34 

Augustus – portrayed as general ??? – likeness – yet idealized

Portrayed as youth (he died at 76 after long reign)

Tradition – after death of male head of family wax bust or head made – placed in family shrine – marble busts carved from wax death masks

Funerals – heads used in processions and carried

Noble families of Rome followed this tradition of ancestor worship

Connected them to family lineage

Likeness important – individual quality

Somber,, dignified – honor and duty stressed

Imperial sculpture – by reign of Augustus (27 – 14 AD) 

Trend in portraiture

Climax in his portrait

God or human being?

Like divine ruler from Greece and Egypt

Emperor – chief priest of State religion – gave him divine air

Inspired by ???? (fig 5-42) from Greece – physical perfection 

Mythological elements:
Winged infant cupid on dolphin at feet – claim that Julium family descended form Jupiter

Face idealized yet is good likeness of Augustus

Breastplate – Augustus’ victory over Parthians 39-38 BC

Shown as allegory

Gods and goddesses raise event to cosmic scale

Augustus saw this victory as new age of peace


Slide 35 

Giving Euyruer??? Divine status became official policy
– Emperor –God + Human – more power

This statue derived from the Doryphoros by Polykleitos

Here cupid at the feet of Augustus – suggests the infant Bacchus in Praxitules’ Hermes

His head is idealized – Hellenized, yet Roman in its natural likeness – we know this from other statues with his likeness – all Romans would have recognized this as Augustus

Bare feet indicate his divinity

Cupid (Venus’ son) links Augustus to divine lineage

Mother Earth also one of reliefs – ties Roman Empire with Earth and conquest of the land

Canopy spread out by sky god at top of breastplate indicates the sky gods protect home

Breastplate shows Augustus’ victory over Panthians in 39-38 BC

Parthian returns a military stand and looted from the Romans 


Slide 36 

Ara Pacis – Augustus saw himself as “Prince of Peace” rather than military hero

This monument – Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace)

Richly carved altar, frieze depicts allegorical and legendary scenes

Hellenistic influence yet classical composure and grace

Mix of real event (founding of altar in 13 BC) with mythical air


Slide 37 

Narrative relief – represents several generations of Augustus’ family – Augustus in Shroud as Pontifex Maximus – chief priest of State Religion

His son –in-law – his wife , Livia

His grandson tugs at the robe of a young man in front of him while an older child tells him to behave

In the moment – real life details yet idealized

Parthenon frieze – celebrates an idealized ritual – the Parthenaic procession – annual – very 4 years larger procession to honor Athena

Much more special depth than Parthenon frieze – we saw this develop in the ??? of Hegaso – here more spatial depth – figures mold into background – pliable space not flat – really emerge out of space


Slide 38 

Here blank background becomes space of sky. Real landscape with rocks and vegetation

Hellenistic (Greek quality_ more idealized and other worldly than Procession

Allegory – Mother Earth flanked by personification of winds 

Personifies fertility – animal, plant and human

Also symbol of Augustus’ reign – peace and plenty

Landscape setting – detailed natural environment and sky

Graceful interplay – Acanthus detail on pilasters repeated motif


Slide 39 

Acanthus ornamentation on pilasters and panels below Allegory – delicate graceful pattern – Acanthus from Greece, but never handled in decorative pattern like this – Roman symbolizes again Augustus’s time of peace and plenty


Slide 40

Column of Trajan – Erected 106-113 AD to celebrate Emperor Trajan’s victorious campaigns over the Dacians (now Romania) 125 feet high

Column of Trajan

Realism in conflict with symbolic purposes of Roman Imperial Art

Freestanding commemorative columns built since Hellenistic times (maybe inspired by Egyptian obelisks)

125 feet high

Continuous spiral band of relief

Complete details of history of Dacian Wars

Column one topped with bronze statue of Trajan (destroyed in Middle Ages)

Base served as burial chamber for his ashes


Slide 41 

Design often credited to Apolodorus of Damascus – Trojan’s military architect during the war

Relief band – if unwound it would be 656 feet long

Hand to see – narrative goes around column and very tall

Top barely viewable

Here River God (descendent of Poseidon) represents the Danube River

To left are river boats loaded with supplies and a Roman town on a rocky bank

On right the Roman Army crosses the river on a pontoon bridge

Over 150 episodes – some with actual combat but rare

Geographic, logistic, political aspects get more attention

Contrasts action and violence in Assyrian reliefs

Very matter of fact military campaign details

Shallow carving so shadows would not obscure scenes

Stage –like space of landscape and architecture behind figures for clarity – foretells the narrative reliefs of the dawn of medieval art 200 years later


Slide 42 

Bronze

Later Imperial portraits

Classical trend – cool and formal

One of this kind that survives – remarkably remained on view throughout Middle Ages

Julius Caesar – started tradition of showing emperor riding horse – had equestrian stature of himself erected in his forum 

Shows Emperor as all-conquering lord of the earth


Slide 43 

(A different portrait of Marcus Aurelius) marble – detail from marble portrait bust

Marcus Aurelius – meant to be seen as victorious ruler – yet humane and wise – contemplator of life

“Meditationary, stoicism, calm, acceptance of life and adherence to duty and country

In Equestrian Statue – Powerful and spirited horse shows martial (relating to war) spirit

Yet Marcus Aurelius himself has a stoic calm

He holds no weapons or shield

Saw himself as a bringer of peace rather than a military hero

After the death of Marcus Aurelius, the Empire began to weaken – succession of barbaric invasions from East and South


Slide 44 

As barbarian invasions as well as internal uprisings plagued the Roman Empire, retaining the throne became a matter of brute force

Succession by murder was not uncommon

The “soldier emperors” – were mercenaries from out-lying provinces of realm – followed one after another at brief intervals

Here, one of the “soldiers emperors” Phillipus the Arab, reigned 244 – 249 AD

This realism as strong as realism in Republican era, but more expressive force

Exact likeness yet displays dark emotions – fear, worry, strain displayed by furrowed brow, sagging mouth and eyes

As if gravity pulls his features down – heavy, burdened

Weighted by psychological pain and agony

Reflected the violence and disorder of his time

Reminds me of the Egyptian Portrait of Sestrosis III (fragment)

(fig 2-19) ??? 6 1/2” high

(1850 BC) Middle Kingdom

His trouble expression similar to Phillysus the Arab


Slide 45 

Things change with change in Roman Empire

Constantine the Great 

1st Christian Emperor and reorganizer of the Roman State

Around 300 BC Roman Empire ruled by two tetrachs that jointly ruled Empire

Constantine named tetrach in 307 AD but became sole ruler in 324 AD

These are fragments from huge stature that was place in apse of the Basilica of Constantine

The head alone is 8 feet tall

Figure was nude- probably seated with mantle draped over legs like Jupiter

Most likely he held the cross-scepter called a labarum

He converted to Christianity in 312 AD

This imperial scepter originally was a Roman military standard

Became symbol of Christianity with “Chi Rho” insignia and wreath added

“Chi Rho” – the 1st two letter of Christ’s name in Greek X” = Chi (Ch) Greek “P” = Rho (Rh) 

“XRISTOS” – Christ

This represented Constantine as Christian leader of the world

Other hand probably held orb

Served also as cult stature of emperor


Slide 46 

Features out of proportion

Viewer is crushed by immensity

Great power, massive immobile

Little realistic, life-like detail

Huge hypnotic eyes

Generalized exaggerated features

Losing realism for symbolic power of exhaulted office


Slide 47 

Marked ritual place of entry into a city – stood alone- different than arches on city walls in Roman triumphal arches erected throughout Roman Empire – commemorative special military events or tribute to General or Emperors – this basic formula Gateway with 2 side portals

Short barrel vaults

Relief around

Erected near Colosseum 312 – 315 AC

Further reflected Constantine’s conception of his role

Largest and most elaborate of its kind

Decorated with sculpture from other Imperial monuments – due to haste and poor state of sculptural workshops in Rome at that time

Conscious choice of pieces that were chosen – all from group of related monuments dedicated to Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius – portraits of these emperors were reworked to resemble Constantine

Constantines’ view of himself as restorer of Roman glory 

Heir of the ‘good Emperor” of 2nd century that chose their successors based on merit rather than kinship


Slide 48 

Medallions above (Hadrianic 117-138 AD)

Frieze – early 4th century – Constantine’s style

Arch contains number of reliefs made especially for Constantines’ Arch such as friezes above the side portals.

These figures in frieze show Constantine’s style

Figures squat and doll-like big heads, stubby legs, little movement or contraposto

No muscular tension in bodies

Avoids using special devices to create depth

No foreshortening

Background flattened out and stage-like

No oblique (slanting) lines

More primitive level of expression

The scene fills the available space – no suggestion that scene goes beyond the border 

Self-contained narrative

Very symmetrical – in detail (fig) 7-47) in book. Constantine is in center with frontal position, full face, while onlookers on sides turn sideways to look at him – expresses their dependency on them

Some figures recognizable but their proportions have been drastically adjusted

Not realistic – more abstract and symbolic


Slide 49 

Roman Wall painting – very little known about them

What we do know of them comes from mostly wall painting unearthed (they were buried in eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD) in area of Pompeii, Herculaneum and other towns near there – or found near on in Rome

Covers about 200 year period, 2nd century BC to late 1st century AD

4 phases
1. First style – widespread in Hellenistic world (found in eastern Mediterranean area) Mainly imitation of colored marble paneling
No examples here

2. second style – Roman illusionism – usually architectural vistas framed in by illusionistic 3-D architectural forms such as painted columns, moulding, masks opened up to light filled architectural vistas – maze of tangled buildings with unorganized and inconsistent perspective – no knowledge of systematic perspective to create illusion of space and depth – viewer gets lost 

Scale also inconsistent

The architectural elements framing the vistas have most 3-D illusion

Also landscapes in second style

Odyssey Landscapes – mainly landscape without architectural elements, 
foreshortening less important

A continuous landscape divided up into compartments that are divided by a framework of pilasters

Each section represents an adventure of Odysseus in battle with the Laestrygonians – warm Mediterranean fantasy land filled with bluish fight-filled space

Figures play less important role rather ambiguous special relationship 

Villa of Livia – view of garden, flowers, trees, birds – charming details – real color and texture.

Space – at arm’s length, but viewer can’t enter space in any way – limited depth, delightful detail – feeling of Aegean Art – for beauty’s sake
No architectural framework, wall opens up in shallow space – then wall of plants


Slide 50 

Villa just outside of Pompeii

Great mural frieze in one of the rooms – dates to latter part of 1st century BC

This at time when second style at its peak

As in View of Garden – both have shallow space and a rhythmic continuity (flowing repetition of elements on shallow stage-like space)


Slide 51 

Details of villa – home for wealthy upper class


Slide 52 

Again as in View of the Garden – (rhythmic continuity)

There is a shallow stage-like space at arm’s length

Figures placed on narrow edge of green with red panels behind them – separated by strips of black – like running stage where ritual is acted out

Depicts various rites of the Dionysiac Mysteries – as semi-secret cult of ancient origin brought to Italy from Greece

Rituals – mysterious, but maybe rites of initiations into womanhood and marriage

In presence of Dionysoso and Adriadne with satyrs (half man and half goat) and sileni

Adriadne – consort of Dionysos

Sileni – nymphs

Eros (god of love) appears as winged boy 

Human and mythical realities merge into one

All figures – qualities of dignity, timeless grace, firm body and glowing, drapery and expression

Rapt intensity of participation in drama of ancient rites

Figures have classic poses and gestures of Greek art, yet less self-conscious than classical Greek art

Informality more Roman quality


Slide 53 

Late Roman Painting

3. Third style – 20 BC to at least mid 1st century BC – abandoned illusionism for decorative surfaces with brand planes of intense color – sometimes relieved with imitation panel paintings – no examples here

4. Fourth style – most intricate of all – around time of eruption of Mount Vesuvius – 79 AD

It combined all three previous styles for grand effect

Sometimes a bit disjointed and complex mixtures of images, illusionism, and decoration

The Ixion Room – in House of Vettii at Pompeii

Combines emulation marble painting, framed mythological scenes (look like panel paintings set into the wall), and fantastic architectural vistas seen through illusionistic windows

Unreal yet picturesque qualities – maybe like theater sets at the time


Slide 54 

Still in 4th style

Peaches and Glass Jar – sometimes within Roman mural decoration a still life is painted within an architectural framework – imaginary niches or cupboards

Here still life – in front there is glass jar filled with water – nice rendering of reflections and transparency

Still can’t trace a realistic light source, but the painter must have observed an actual jar – light and reflections, shadows cast are not consistent with direction of light, also light is trapped in jar – does not penetrate through jar and illuminate shadows. 

For the most part, Roman painting lacks continuity of a consistent objective view of reality – still displays grace and charm.

Also even though it is tempting to assume great deal of copying of Greek art works, for the most part Roman painting is a specifically Roman development.

Themes (even if they have Greek names) can’t be assumed to be any less Roman

Still like painting started in Greece, but taken over and developed more extensively in Roman painting

Roman illusionistic tendencies during 1st century BC in Roman wall paintings are a dramatic breakthrough that as far as we know had no precedence in Greece

Hercules and Telephus – Roman painting (as in Roman sculpture) copied Greek originals – sometimes we have several examples of copies of one Greek original, so we can see the original was changed in translation

Mythological panels – freely altered and changed (perhaps to varying tastes of collectors.

Hercules and Telephus (his infant son) rather disjointed feeling – combines motifs from different sources

Hercules discovers his infant son Telephus

Upper left – mischievous Pan behind reclining figure of (the personifi9cation of) Arcadia

Hercules stands looking at child seated under doe. Beside him to right is Nemean Lion (his emblem) and eagle of Jupiter (his father)

Style and technique varies from figure to figure – some places precise outline, some places sketchy dabs of paint

Highlights on basket inconsistent with other various light sources in painting

Ambivalent perspective


Slide 55 

Patrician holds portrait busts of his father and grandfather (probably). Portrait busts were detailed, topographical records of subjects face – contained not much emotion – serious, stern, devoted to duty, Roman qualities

Ancestor Cult – portraits painted and portrait busts made from wax image of face of deceased (usually the male head of the household)

Busts were preserved and kept on shrine or family altar. At the funeral procession, the ancestral images of family were carved in procession

Memorialized dead – preserved their spirit

Pride in family lineage – link to ancestors

By early 1st century BC there was a large demand for faces sculpted in marble

Portrait Painting – also served same role in ancestor cults – not many painted portraits survive in Italy

Coherent group of portrait paintings found in Faiyum – district in Lower Egypt

Earliest dates from 2nd century AD

They survived due to Egyptians custom of attaching portrait of deceased to the wrapped, mummified body

Originally these were sculpted death masks in Egypt (like Tutankhamen’s death mask) but in Roman times they used painted wooden panels

Fresh colors due to medium of Encaustic – pigments suspended in hot wax (a mixture thick and creamy or light and translucent)

Best ones – fresh, direct strokes, work fast before wax dries and sets

Portrait of a Boy – style of its own, many produced very fast – all tend to emphasize the eyes – similarity in placement of highlights and shadows and angle of face

Here see individual character of this boy

This tradition and technique will be used again centuries later in early Byzantine icons – painting of Christ, Madonna and Child and Saints.

Filed Under: History Tagged With: Amarillo, Etruscan, Roman, Texas

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